St. Maximus the Confessor, Abbot of Chrysopolis

Abbot and Confessor: 580-662 A.D.

Greek Father of the Church

Introduction

Although listed as a Greek Father of the Church, St. Maximus Homologetes was the last common Father of both the East and the West. He lived in Rome for many years and collaborated with the popes and other Western leaders to overcome the heresy of Monothelitism (the teaching that Christ had only one will).

The struggle against Monothelitism

St. Maximus was born of a noble family at Constantinople and became secretary to Emperor Heraclitus. He however resigned to become a monk at nearby Chrysopolis (Skutari), where he became abbot. He led the struggle against Monothelitism and Emperor Constans II, who favored the heresy. He defended Pope Honorius (who was charged with the heresy); supported very much papal authority; and in 645 A.D., refuted Pyrrhus who was influenced to abjure the heresy.

Continuing the struggle against the heresy

Emperor Constans issued a decree, Typhos, which favored Monothelitism. St. Maximus was at the Lateran Council of 649 A.D. at the time - a Council that was convened by Pope St. Martin I, to condemn the decree. Due to this struggle, Pope St. Martin I was exiled to Chersonese in 653 A.D. and died a martyr's death due to ill treatment. St. Maximus too suffered from this struggle. He was seized at Rome, brought to Constantinople where he was charged with conspiracy against the Empire. He was then exiled to Bizya, Thrace.

In exile

In his exile, St. Maximus lived next to a monastery at Rhegium, and then spent the next six years at Perberis, with two of his supporters also subjected to great hardships. These two who supported also the cause against Monothelitism were then brought back to Constantinople, tortured and mutilated, and sentenced to life imprisonment. St. Maximus died after a terrible journey to Skhemaris on the Black Sea.

Byzantine mysticism

St. Maximus was a foremost exponent of Byzantine mysticism and wrote prolifically, theological, mystical, and ascetical treatises, biblical commentaries, a dialogue on the spiritual life between two monks, and Mystagogia, a treatise on liturgical symbolism.

Some of St. Maximus' Greek writings were translated by John Scotus Eriugena in the ninth century and thus became available to Latin thinkers. In his Mystagogia and in his speculative writings, St. Maximus transformed the mystical teaching of Evagrius and Dionysius, through an ontology (a branch of philosophy), that centered on his insight: "on account of Christ, that is the mystery of Christ, all the ages, and all things in the ages, take in Christ their beginning and end of being". (Questions to Thalassius, question 60).

Author's note: Below is the result made to a prompt made at Gemini.google.com (June 18, 2024, 1500h MLA time) to understand this theological issue which began in the Eastern Church of Christianity:

St. Maximus the Confessor was a key figure in defending the orthodox position, known as dyothelitism, against the monothelite heresy. Dyothelitism affirms that Jesus Christ possesses two wills:

Divine will: Perfect and unchanging, reflecting his divine nature.
Human will: Real and free, reflecting his human nature.
These two wills are believed to coexist in perfect harmony without conflict or confusion. This concept was seen as essential for upholding both the full divinity and full humanity of Christ.

References of this article

• Pocket Catholic Dictionary, by John A. Hardon, SJ
• The Essential Writings of Christian Mysticism, by editor Bernard McGinn
• Dictionary of Saints, by John J. Delaney

St. Cyprian of Carthage, Bishop and Martyr

St. Cyprian of Carthage, c. 200-258 A.D.

[Author's note: Carthage, great city of antiquity on the north coast of Africa, now a residential suburb of the city of Tunis, Tunisia. Built on a promontory on the Tunisian coast, it was placed to influence and control ships passing between Sicily and the North African coast as they traversed the Mediterranean Sea. (Britannica.com)]

A convert to Christianity in his middle age

St. Cyprian was originally known as Thascius Caecilius Cyprianus. Professionally a teacher, orator and lawyer, he became a Christian when he was in his middle aged years. As he converted to the Christian faith, he studied comprehensively the Scriptures and the works of religious writers like Tertullian. He strongly advocated Christianity through his writing talents and soon became a priest. In 248 A.D., he was named bishop of Carthage.

St. Cyprian against Novatus

As bishop of Carthage, St. Cyprian had to contend with the schismatic Novatus [who did not want Cyprian to be named as bishop of Carthage]. Novatus caused a schism because he accepted all apostates, known at the time as lapsi, with no requirement of penance. St. Cyprian denounced Novatus for this undue leniency and convened a council at Carthage in 251 A.D. to set forth the terms under which the apostates or lapsi, should be received back in the Church. In retaliation, Novatus went to Rome and joined the antipope, Novatian. St. Cyprian however asserted the supremacy of Pope [St.] Cornelius and actively supported him by rallying the African bishops on the side of Pope Cornelius. There thus were two schisms at the time: St. Cyprian against Novatus, and St. Cornelius [Pope] against the antipope Novatian.

A terrible plague in Carthage and St. Cyprian's martyrdom

In the years 252-254 A.D., Carthage was stricken with a terrible plague. Under the leadership of St. Cyprian, people all around Carthage cared for those smitten with the plague - including among enemies and persecutors. Wealthy people gave money for the care of the plague victims, while others of simple means gave much of their time.

Despite the success of St. Cyprian's leadership in alleviating the effects of the plague, the Christians were still blamed for the plague and hatred against St. Cyprian and the Christians started to build up again. St. Cyprian was arrested amidst all these schisms, trouble, turmoil, and persecutions, and was exiled to Curubis, which was 50 miles away from Carthage. In the following year after his exile, a decree came out sentencing Christian clergy to death. In his trial, St. Cyprian persisted in his Christian faith and refused to honor and sacrifice to the Roman gods. He was thus beheaded on September 14.

St. Cyprian's teaching on unity

Known for his writing talents, St. Cyprian wrote numerous theological treatises on the Church. The late pontiff, Pope Benedict XVI, asked the faithful to place particular attention to St. Cyprian's teaching on Church unity. He mentions that according to St. Cyprian, the unity in the Church has its foundation in St. Peter and its perfect fulfillment in the Eucharist. Since the Church during St. Cyprian's time was filled with schisms and divisive elements, the bishop-martyr and saint "strongly affirm that the Church is one, [and] founded on Peter".

Related resources:

• "A History of the Church" by Franzen and Dolan
• Dictionary of Saints, by John J. Delaney
• St. Polycarp, Martyr of the Early Centuries
• The Martyrs of the Early Christian Centuries

11th Sunday of the Year (B)

(Edited) Reflections (from) 11th Sunday of the Year (B), June 17, 2012

Liturgical readings

Ezekiel 17:22-24
Psalm 92
2 Corinthians 5:6-10
Mark 4:26-34

"What image will help to present the reign of God?"

Jesus asked this question to the crowd: "What image will help to present the reign of God?" (Mark 4:30) Then He presented the parable of the mustard seed (Mark 4:31-32). Previous to this question and the parable of the mustard seed, He also presented another parable (Mark 4:26-29) for the people to understand in commonplace images what the reign of God is. Both parables used the element of "seed" in their presentation: the first parable used seeds that produced a wheat field ready for harvest, while the second parable used a mustard seed that grew into the largest of shrubs - sheltering the birds of the sky.

The first seeds in the first parable produced food, while the second seed in the second parable produced shelter. The gospel helps us to see that the reign of God provides food and shelter for all its children. The food it produces is an imperishable food, and the shelter it provides gives refuge from what can harm. Jesus wants us to see that the reign of God is like a father that provides for his family. It is God our Father who provides everything for all His children. So as "all in the family" receive His Kingdom's provisions, so should everyone also work to provide for others who want to be a part of it. By our good deeds done in the Spirit, God's kingdom grows and is built up in the strength of His mercy.

We are indeed privileged as Catholics to have a Church that has provided and still continues to provide generations with the imperishable food in the Eucharist and the refuge needed to be healed from the harm done by sin. As we receive nourishment and healing, so must we work so that others to can share in what we have received. It is by us that the reign of God extends to other families within our immediate social network. Let us "forward" the gift we have received to others. Our good deeds need not be big actions; just a kind remark or a charitable gesture as small as a mustard seed is enough to let God's Kingdom be present among us.