Celtic Christianity and its Monastic Influence on the Church

Introduction

Before the predominant model of monasticism began by St. Benedict of Nursia at Monte Cassino in 520 A.D., monasticism had another way of life and prayer in the newly converted Celtic lands of the Far West. This was rooted in the faith introduced by St. Patrick (ca. 461 A.D.). The monasteries of Celtic Christianity became centers of ecclesiastical life, as well as great schools of learning. Those in the forefront of the Celtic school were famous abbots like: Sts. Samson, Cadoc, Gildas, and David. They carried their monastic ideals across most of Europe: at Luxeuil in ca. 590 A.D.; at Jumieges in France; at Stavelot and Malmedy in Belgium; at St. Gall in Switzerland; and at Bobbio in Italy. These monasteries were founded by the Irish monks.

Historical notes: St. Patrick Christianizes Ireland

After being carried as a slave to Ireland around ca. 401 A.D., Patrick became acquainted with both the country and the language. When he was able to return to England in 407 A.D., some writings say he became a monk in the monastery of Lerin, then became a cleric in Auxerre, and eventually was sent as a missionary to Ireland where he acted as bishop. St. Patrick not only converted the Celtic tribes very well but organized them ecclesiastically. Because of St. Patrick's monastic formation, a monastic character thus became typical of Irish Christianity. It was the Irish monasteries that became the religious centers for each of the numerous Celtic tribes. Aside from the monastic leaders already mentioned above, there are other great holy founders like: Finnian, Columban the Elder of Hy, Comgall of Bangor, Brendan, Kevin, and Columban the Younger.

Irish Catholicism and private confession

In the sixth century, the monastic ideal that blossomed in Ireland became popular. Monasteries eventually became advanced schools of intellectual life and piety. The island produced countless saints and scholars and was called the "Insula Sanctorum". This golden age of the Irish Church lasted until about 740 A.D. It was from this golden age of Irish monasticism that the entire Catholic Church inherited the practice of private confession. The custom of private confession was first practiced by the Irish monks, who eventually recommended it to the lay faithful since they ask for advice on spiritual matters. Private confession thus became an instrument for spiritual guidance.

A monasticism which has a missionary spirit

In spite of its strong anchoritic (hermit) character, Irish monasticism also had a strong missionary spirit. Holy pilgrimage, the "Perigrinari pro Christo", was their ascetic ideal. This active Irish missionary monks were especially active in northwestern Germany, in Franconia, in Thuringia, Alemannia, Swabia, and Bavaria. Among the better known missionary monks were St. Kilian of Wurzburg (martyred in 689 A.D. with Colonatus and Totnanus), Pirminius (d. 753 A.D.), Corbinianus of Freising (d. 725 A.D.), Fridolin of Sackingen (ca. 600 A.D.), Trudpert of the Untermunster valley (d. ca. 607 A.D.), Rupertus of Worms (d. ca. 718 A.D.), Emmeranus of Regensburg (d. 715 A.D.), Findan of Rheinau (d. 878 A.D.), Furseus (d. ca. 647 A.D.), Eligius (d. ca. 660 A.D.), Amandus, Lambert, and Hubertus.

Conclusion

This summarized history of monasticism in the Celtic Church, makes one see that the monastic charism is like a prism which reflects many colors when the rays of the sun shine upon it. Each color of the monastic charism represents a specific monastic spiritual tradition that has sprung from the following of Christ and His gospel. Of the many monastic ideals (such as that of St. Basil in the East, the monks of the desert in Egypt, and the Benedictine monks of the West), the specific contribution of Irish monasticism to the whole Church is a sophisticated and ascetic striving for perfection through the individual guidance given in private confession. With Vatican II's introduction of communal penitential services, because of the Irish monastic influence, private confession still remains as a cherished tradition of confession in the Church today.

The Church Fathers: Early Pillars of the Church

Fathers of the Church

Church Fathers of the post-canonical period

Introduction

"Father of the Church" is a traditional title given to Christian preachers, writers and theologians of the post-canonical period (after the books of the Old and New Testament were formed). Unlike the title of "doctor of the Church", which denotes an outstanding teacher, "Father of the Church" is a popular title but not given officially by the Church. However, if "Father of the Church" and "doctor of the Church" are not synonymous terms, there are Fathers of the Church who were also declared doctors of the Church as well.

The Fathers of the Church came immediately after the age of the New Testament and contributed much to the doctrine of the Christian faith. They were reputedly known for their sanctity (even if some have never been given the title of sainthood), and their opinions have always mattered greatly in the Catholic Church. The influence of the Fathers of the Church also extend beyond Roman Catholicism. The Orthodox Christians are more devoted to them than the Catholics, while the Anglicans and the Protestants have made extensive use of their teaching.

Popular Church Fathers

Ignatius - a bishop of Antioch in Syria, ca. 110-117 A.D., who wrote a letter to each of the six churches exhorting unity among the believers. The basis of this unity was the threefold ministry of bishop, presbyter (priest), and deacon. The churches Ignatius wrote to were at Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles, Rome, Philadelphia, and Smyrna. Ignatius was led through Asia Minor to his execution as a martyr in Rome.

Justin - he was called the Martyr from his testimony unto death in Rome ca. 165 A.D. Born in Samaria of heathen parents, Justin was a student of philosophy and was gradually converted to Christianity. Justin believed that Christianity was the oldest, the truest, and most divine among all the philosophies. In Christianity's defense, he wrote his "Apology" which defends Christianity against the attacks of Judaism by means of a discussion between himself and a Jew named Trypho.

Tatian - he was from Syria or Assyria and wrote in the middle of the second century. He is known chiefly for his "Diatessaron", which interweaves the four Gospels into one continuous narrative.

Irenaeus - he was born in Asia Minor in the second quarter of the second century. As bishop of Lyons, he was known chiefly for his book refuting various Gnostic schools: "Refutation of Gnosticism" and "Against Heresies". The latter is the oldest surviving work in which the Church repudiated heresy. Irenaeus also wrote several books and letters which are regarded as treatises. (note: St. Irenaeus of Lyons has been declared the 37th Doctor of the Church by Pope Francis last January 21, 2022).

Tertullian - born in Carthage ca. 150-155 A.D., Tertullian studied law and was converted to Christianity ca. 190-195 A.D. He is regarded as the Father of Latin theology. When he died in ca. 223 A.D., he had left the Montanists and founded a sect of his own. His chief polemical work was "Against Marcion" in five books written over a period of about twelve years, ca. 200-212 A.D.

Clement of Alexandria - a successor of Pantaenus as head of the Alexandrian catechetical school from ca. 200 A.D. till his death in ca. 215 A.D. Clement was a presbyter of the Alexandrian Church. Not really a great theologian, Clement was a Greek puritan who understood philosophy as the handmaid of Christianity, and was known to have led the Greeks to Christ. Four of his more important surviving writings are: the "Exhortation to the Heathen", the "Protrepticus", or "Address", the "Instructor", and the "Stromateis", or "Miscellanies".

Origen - Origen was born in ca. 184-185 A.D. and lived mostly in Alexandria where he headed the catechetical school. He died in Caesarea in 254 A.D. during the Decian persecution. Origen is noted to be "the greatest Christian scholar and the most prolific Christian writer of antiquity". He wrote thousands of scrolls similar in length to the Gospel of Matthew. He was also a biblical critic and exegete, interpreting Scripture allegorically. Some of his numerous commentaries and doctrinal works include "On Prayer", "Contra Celsum", and "De Principiis". He was also compiler of the famous Hexapla, which contained the Old Testament in six columns. Also attributed to him were the Greek translations of Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus.

Hippolytus - born in ca. 170 A.D., Hippolytus spent most of his life in Rome where he was a priest and then bishop for about seven years (ca. 222-23 A.D. to 230 A.D.). He split with Calixtus when Calixtus was elected as bishop. Sent into exile to the mines of Sardinia in 235 A.D., he died there and was buried on the road to Tivoli. He wrote many books but is known chiefly for his "Refutation of All Heresies" which seeks to show that heresies have their source in Greek philosophy and paganism.

Cyprian - Cyprian was born probably in Carthage ca. 200-210 A.D. and spent all of his life there. He became bishop of Carthage from 248-249 A.D. till his death as a martyr in the year 258 A.D.

Eusebius of Caesarea - Eusebius was born ca. 260 A.D. in Palestine, and became bishop of Caesarea from ca. 315 A.D. till his death in 340 A.D. He played a prominent role in the Council of Nicea, and was known chiefly for his "Church History" in ten books, written between 323-325 A.D. He also wrote "Theophany", a brief exposition of the meaning of Christ.

Didymus - Didymus was a disciple of Origen. Blind early in his youth, he became one of the last presidents of the catechetical school at Alexandria. He died ca. 398 A.D. and was noted chiefly for his exegesis of Biblical books and his three books, "On the Trinity". Also surviving are his treatise on the Holy Spirit in a Latin translation.

Epiphanius of Salamis - Epiphanius was born in Palestine between 310 A.D. and 320 A.D. He was an ascetic who became bishop of Salamis, the capital of Cyprus, in 367 A.D. He spent his life hunting heretics and died at sea on his way from Constantinople to Cyprus in 403 A.D. He wrote the "Ancoratus", which is a defense of Christian doctrine in 373 A.D. He also wrote the more important "Panarion", which is a work against heresies - between 374 A.D. and 377 A.D.

Jerome - St. Jerome was born in Stridon, Dalmatia, between 331 A.D. and 342 A.D. He obtained his education in Rome and was baptized ca. 370 A.D. In 385 A.D., he left Rome for Jerusalem where he presided over a monastery as an ascetic till his death in 420 A.D. His supreme gift to Christendom was the Vulgate - a translation of the whole Bible into Latin. Also of great importance are his many commentaries on biblical books, his dialogue against the Pelagians in three books (415 A.D.), and "On Illustrious Men" written in 392 A.D. and 393 A.D. Many of his letters are also preserved.

Augustine - St. Augustine of Hippo was born in North Africa in 354 A.D. and died in August 430 A.D. Augustine is noted to be the most prominent of the Western Fathers of the Church. He is the most quoted in the present Catechism (together with St. Thomas Aquinas). Of all his works, the popular ones are his "Confessions" and his "City of God".

A list of Latin Fathers of the Church

• St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan (340-97)
• Arnobius, apologist (d. 327)
• St. Augustine, bishop of Hippo (354-430)
• St. Benedict, father of Western monasticism (480-546)
• St. Caesarius, Archbishop of Arles (470-542)
• St. John Cassian, abbot, ascetical writer (360-435)
• St. Celestine I, Pope (d. 432)
• St. Cornelius, Pope (d. 253)
• St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage (d. 258)
• St. Damasus I, Pope (d. 384)
• St. Dionysius, Pope (d. 268)
• St. Ennodius, bishop of Pavia (473-521)
• St. Eucherius, bishop of Lyons (d. 449)
• St. Fulgentius, bishop of Ruspe (468-533)
• St. Gregory of Elvira (died after 392)
• St. Gregory the Great, Pope (540-604)
• St. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers (315-68)
• St. Innocent I, Pope (d. 417)
• St. Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons (130-200)
• St. Isidore, Archbishop of Seville (560-636)
• St. Jerome, priest, (343-420)
• Lactantius Firmianus, apologist (240-320)
• St. Leo the Great, Pope (390-461)
• Marius Mercator, Latin polemicist (early fifth century)
• Marius Victorinus, Roman rhetorician (fourth century)
• Minucius Felix, apologist (second or third century)
• Novatian, the Schismatic (200-62)
• St. Optatus, bishop of Mileve (fourth century)
• St. Pacian, bishop of Barcelona (fourth century)
• St. Pamphilus, priest (240-309)
• St. Paulinus, bishop of Nola (353-431)
• St. Peter Chrysologus, archbishop of Ravenna (400-50)
• St. Phoebadius, bishop of Agen (d. 395)
• St. Prosper of Aquitaine, theologian (390-463)
• Rufinus, Latin translator of Greek theology (345-410)
• Salvian, priest (400-80)
• St. Siricius, Pope (334-99)
• Tertullian, apologist (160-223)
• St. Vincent of Lerins, priest and monk (d. 450)

A list of Greek Fathers of the Church

• St. Anastasius Sinaita, apologist, monk (d. 700)
• St. Andrew of Crete, archbishop of Gortyna (660-740)
• Aphraates, Syriac monk (early fourth century)
• St. Archelaus, bishop of Cascar (d. 282)
• St. Athanasius, archbishop of Alexandria (c. 297-373)
• Athenagoras, apologist (second century)
• St. Basil the Great, archbishop of Caesarea (329-79)
• St. Caesarius of Nazianzus (330-69)
• St. Clement of Alexandria, theologian (150-215)
• St. Clement I of Rome, Pope (30-101)
• St. Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem (315-86)
• St. Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria (376-444)
• Didymus the Blind, theologian (313-98)
• Diodore, bishop of Tarsus (d. 392)
• Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite, mystical theologian (late fifth century)
• St. Dionysius the Great, archbishop of Alexandria (190-264)
• St. Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis (315-403)
• Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea (260-340)
• St. Eustathius, bishop of Antioch (fourth century)
• St. Firmillian, bishop of Caesarea (d. 268)
• Gennadius I, Patriarch of Constantinople (d. 471)
• St. Germanus, Patriarch of Constantinople (634-733)
• St. Gregory of Nazianzus, bishop of Sasima (329-90)
• St. Gregory of Nyssa (330-95)
• St. Gregory Thaumaturgus, bishop of Neocaesarea (213-70)
• Hermas, author of "The Shepherd" (second century)
• St. Hippolytus, martyr (170-236)
• St. Ignatius, bishop of Antioch (35-107)
• St. Isidore of Pelusium, abbot (360-c. 450)
• St. John Chrysostom, patriarch of Constantinople (347-407)
• St. John Climacus, monk (579-649)
• St. John Damascene, defender of sacred images (675-749)
• St. Julius I, pope (d. 352)
• St. Justin Martyr, apologist (100-65)
• St. Leontius of Byzantium, theologian (sixth century)
• St. Macarius the Great, monk (300-90)
• St. Maximus, abbot and confessor (580-662)
• St. Melito, bishop of Sardis (d. 190)
• St. Methodius, bishop of Olympus (d. 311)
• St. Nilus the Elder, priest and monk (d. 430)
• Origen, head of the catechetical school of Alexandria (184-254)
• St. Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna (69-155)
• St. Proclus, patriarch of Constantinople (d. 446)
• St. Serapion, bishop of Thmuis (died after 362)
• St. Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem (560-638)
• Tatian the Assyrian, apologist and theologian (120-80)
• Theodore, bishop of Mopsuestia (350-428)
• Theodoret, bishop of Cyrrhus (393-458)
• St. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch (late second century)

References of this article

• Pocket Catholic Dictionary, by John A. Hardon, S.J.
• Gospel Parallels, by Burton H. Throckmorton, Jr.
• The New Dictionary of Theology, by editors Komonchak, Collins, and Lane

Sts. Cyril and Methodius (feast: Feb 14) and the Patron Saints of Europe

Sts. Cyril and Methodius and the Six Patrons of Europe

Introduction

In 1999 A.D., Pope John Paul II declared St. Benedict of Nursia [Pope Paul VI also named St. Benedict as patron protector of Europe in 1964] as one of the six patrons of Europe - together with St. Cyril and St. Methodius, St. Edith Stein, St. Bridget of Sweden, and St. Catherine of Siena. These six great men and women was a force for good in Europe's spirituality - influencing especially the political sphere of their respective countries and regions of apostolate and mission. With their great love for God, they have successfully sowed the seed of the Gospel on the good soil of many European cultures.

Their year of birth and death, and feast day

• St. Cyril, c. 825-884 A.D., feast day February 14
• St. Methodius, c. 826-884 A.D., feast day February 14
• St. Benedict of Nursia, c. 480-c. 547 A.D., feast day July 11
• St. Catherine of Siena, 1347-1380 A.D., feast day April 29
• St. Bridget of Sweden, 1303-1373 A.D., feast day July 23
• St. Edith Stein, 1891-1942, feast day August 9

Sts. Cyril and Methodius

Sts. Cyril and Methodius are blood brothers born at Thessalonika, Greece, and have their roots from a senatorial family. Both were living in a monastery on the Bosporus in 861 A.D., when Emperor Michael III sent them to convert the Khazars in the Dnieper-Volga regions of Russia. Learning the Khazar language, they gained numerous converts. After their mission, on their return to Greece, Methodius became abbot of a monastery. In 863 A.D., at the request of Prince Rotislav of Moravia, Photius, the patriarch of Constantinople, sent the two brothers to convert the Moravians. Since the two brothers knew the Slavonic tongue, they were very successful. They invented an alphabet, based largely on Greek capitals, marking the beginnings of Slavonic writing. This mission incurred the enmity of the German clergy because of their use of Slavonic in Church services. A second reason for enmity is they come from a region in Constantinople - a region suspect in the West because of the widespread heresy there.

When Cyril and Methodius were summoned to Rome by Pope Nicholas I, as they were on their way to Rome, the Pope passed away. They were then received by Pope Adrian II. Adrian welcomed the two brothers warmly, and was convinced of their orthodoxy. He approved their use of the Slavonic language and consecrated them as bishops. While in Rome, Cyril became a monk, but soon died on February 14. Methodius, on the other hand, returned to Moravia. Pope Adrian then created the archidiocese of Moravia and Pannonia, and made Methodius archbishop at Velehrad, Czechoslovakia. This move again angered the Germans. In 870 A.D., King Louis the German, and the German bishops deposed Methodius. He was released two years later by Pope John VIII and returned to his see. St. Methodius had to continuously convince John VIII of his orthodoxy. He eventually obtained permission from the Pope to use the Slavonic language in his teaching and mission. This struggle with the Germans continued all through the rest of St. Methodius' life until his death on April 6.

Sts. Cyril and Methodius are called "Apostles to the Slavs". To this day, the liturgical language of the Russians, Serbs, Ukrainians, and Bulgars is composed by the two brothers who brought the Catholic faith to them.

St. Benedict of Nursia

St. Benedict's spirituality attracted great numbers of disciples. He organized them into twelve monasteries, made manual work part of the community program, and built the monasteries as centers of learning and spirituality. St. Benedict wrote a rule composed of seventy-three sections. This Rule organized the monks into a single monastic community in the great Abbey of Monte Cassino. In the rule, Benedict prescribed common sense, a life of moderate asceticism, prayer, study, work, and community life under one superior. The Rule also stressed obedience, stability, zeal, and the recitation of the Divine Office as central to their monastic way of life. This rule influenced and still influence spiritual and monastic life in the West until the present time.

As St. Benedict governed this monastic movement and system, he also counselled rulers and Popes, ministered to the poor and the destitute around the monasteries, and repaired the damages wrought by the Totila the Lombard's invasion. Up to this time, the monastic system of St. Benedict has given the Church many great men and women - all holy saints and servants of God: 50 Benedictine Popes, 7,000 plus Benedictine bishops, and 40,000 plus Benedictine saints.

St. Catherine of Siena

St. Catherine was noted to be an apostle for the unity in the Church. In her political efforts, she was unsuccessful in attempting to mediate between the city-state of Florence and with the papal administration of Pope Gregory. But, her meeting with the Pontiff at Avignon and her pleas led the Pontiff to return the papacy to Rome in 1376 A.D. [the papacy was moved to Avignon, France, seventy years earlier]. Even if unsuccessful the first time, she again returned to Florence and this time she was successful in reconciling Florence and the Holy See. This ended a situation which had caused great turbulence throughout all of Italy.

This is how the Great Schism was finally resolved. After Pope Gregory's death in 1378 A.D., Urban VI was elected as pope. But dissident cardinals elected Robert of Geneva as antipope Clement VII at Fondi. This development created a papal court at Avignon, France. St. Catherine worked indefatigably for the support of Urban VI and the end of the schism. In this work, she finally suffered a paralytic stroke on April 21 and died a few days later in Rome on April 29.

St. Bridget of Sweden

St. Bridget of Sweden experienced visions and revelations early in life. After marrying and having children, she made a holy pilgrimage to St. Olaf at Norway. Upon her husband's death in 1344 A.D., she spent the next four years living in the Cistercian monastery of Alvastra. As a result of a revelation in her visions, she denounced the King and Queen of Sweden for their frivolous lives. She then founded a monastery at Vadstena in 1344 A.D. This marked the beginning of the Order of the Most Holy Trinity (the Brigettines) [other sources name her order as the Order of the Most Holy Savior]. Vadstena then became the intellectual center of fifteenth century Sweden.

St. Bridget was outspoken against King Magnus' crusade against the Letts and the Estonians. She also wrote to Pope Clement VI at Avignon, France - telling him that she saw a vision that demanded the return of the papacy from Avignon, France to Rome, Italy. Despite receiving much disfavor because of her outspokenness, she went to Rome in 1349 A.D. and impressed the whole city, especially the poor, with her holiness. Incessant in her Christian mission and never lacking zeal, she continued on - reforming monasteries around Rome. And despite her denunciation of people in high offices, including Pope Urban V, the constitutions of her Order was approved in 1370 A.D. Before she passed away in 1373 A.D., St. Bridget made a final journey to the Holy Land in 1371 A.D. Canonized in 1391 A.D., she is also known as Birgitta.

St. Edith Stein

Born to Orthodox Jewish parents in a region which was formerly part of Germany, Edith Stein renounced her faith and became an atheist. Her interest in philosophy spurred her to pursue studies in that area. Though her studies were interrupted by the First World War, after the war, she received her doctorate in philosophy from the University of Freiburg. Attracted to Catholicism during her studies, it was only upon reading the works of St. Teresa of Avila that her intellectual interest with leading Catholic philosophers blossomed well into faith. Eventually, she was baptized a Catholic in 1922 A.D. She began to teach at a Dominican school for girls, continued her studies, and started to write an extensive body of original works in Catholic philosophy. In 1933 A.D., she was forced to leave her position as lecturer at an Institute in Munster because of Nazi laws on the Jews. She decided to become a Carmelite nun - taking the religious name Sr. Teresa Benedicta of the Cross, in 1934 A.D. The persecution of the Jews led her to flee to Holland in the late 1930s. But the Nazis invaded Holland and so in August 1942 A.D., she was taken by the Gestapo and put to death in the Auschwitz gas chamber that same month.

Summary

Six great saints and pillars of holiness. All spiritual lighthouses that channel the light of Christ to the whole continent of Europe. Their spirituality leaves an important legacy to the Catholic faith: learning, prayer and work, peace and unity, prayer and prophetic witness, mission and community life, education and teaching, and the witnessing to Christ through martyrdom. These six great men and women have influenced many generations of Europeans. They are part of that great spiritual foundation that has Christianized Europe and continues to call Europe back to its Christian roots.